Introduction
Plotinus
held that Plato’s thinking embodies wisdom
. However, concerning the philosophy of music, and the
philosophy of art in general, there are some differences between Plato’s and
Plotinus’ position which does not imply that Plotinus’ position is
implausible. The contrary is correct. Especially, when we are confronted
with “minimal music” the plausibility of Plotinus’ philosophy of music
becomes clear, and this is what I wish to show within this article. I
progress as follows. Firstly, I give an outline of Plotinus’ philosophy of
music, whereby in succession I deal with the role of the musician, various
aspects concerning music as such, and the reception of music. In the final
part of the article, I show why Plotinus’ philosophy of music is
particularly plausible when one applies it to the analysis of minimal music
which has become increasingly popular during the last thirty years. I start
with part one.
Plotinus’ philosophy of music
§ 1 The Musician
In contrast to Plato, who holds that
only philosophers can get access to the
realm of forms which becomes obvious in
Plato’s allegory of the cave
,
it is possible also for artists to get
access to the realm of forms or the
nous, according to Plotinus.
Moreover, it is not only artists who can
contemplate the forms but also lovers,
and, of course, philosophers
.
Although I have referred to artists in
general, Plotinus often mentions only
the musicians
.
Yet, it is clear that other artists have
that ability as well
.
Plotinus attributes particular
importance to musicians, although he
does not explain specifically why he
attributes more importance to music than
to the other arts but it is clear that
he does as he particularly stresses the
musician’s ability to get access to the
higher realms.
According to
Plotinus, there are three types of men who can get access to the realm of
forms. There is the musician, the lover, and the philosopher, and there are
two separate ways, which can be taken in order to reach the higher levels of
existence. Firstly, one can start with the apparent things, and then
progress to the intelligible realm, or one can directly start in the
intelligible realm and then progress even further:
“Surely, as we
read, those that have already seen all
or most things, those who at their first
birth have entered into the life-germ
from which is to spring a metaphysician,
a musician, or a born lover, the
metaphysician taking to the path by
instinct, the musician and the nature
peculiarly susceptible to love needing
outside guidance.
But how lies the course? Is it alike for all, or is
there a distinct method for each class of temperament?
For all there are two stages of the path, as they
are making upwards or have already gained the upper sphere.
The first degree is the conversion from the lower
life; the second – held by those that have already made their way to the
sphere of the Intelligibles, have set as it were a footprint there but must
still advance within the realm – lasts until they reach the extreme hold of
the place, the Term attained when the topmost peak of the Intellectual realm
is won.” [7]
The last option applies to philosophers only, as they
have the appropriate constitution to deal directly with the realm of forms
. The other road has to be taken by musicians and lovers. They
differ as follows. The musician loves beauty, harmony, good rhythms,
pleasing sounds and figures, and consonance, and he gets repelled by
everything ugly, disharmonious, and dissonant. So there is a natural
disposition in him to be moved by everything, which is important for a
musician
. He can progress to higher
realms, if wise men show him the nature of music, and that the nature of
something is always to be found in the higher realms.
The lover on the other hand does not start with a certain area of the
apparent world, but with a specific object only. He falls in love with that
object, and is absorbed by it. Then, the lover has to be shown that what he
loves about the object in question can also be found in other things, and
that the origin of that what he loves originates from a separate realm in
which one can find that quality at an even higher level
. And when both the musician and the lover have reached the
intelligible realm, then they have to be taken further along the road the
philosopher has taken which finally leads up to the one or the hen.
Still, the question remains, what exactly is meant by the expression “musician”.
Is it the composer, the performing musician, somebody who thinks about music,
or does Plotinus employ the term to refer to artists in general, as Richter
thinks
. It is very tempting to
agree with Richter and claim that Plotinus employs the term mousikos
to refer to artists in general, as it becomes clear at various passages
that all artists can get access to higher realms, and so it
seems necessary that Plotinus also refers to all artists in the paragraph in
question, as here he talks about the various types of men who can get access
to the higher realms. One could even claim in favour of Richter’s
interpretation that mousiké includes all other type of art, and
therefore Plotinus uses this term to refer to artists in general. However,
it has to be noted that only in antiquity mousiké included the
aspects of dance, poetry, and music, but in late antiquity a stronger
separation between music and prose took place
. In addition, Plotinus stresses that harmony, sounds,
figures and consonances are important for the mousikos, and this
clearly implies that he had in mind actual musicians and not artists in
general. Plotinus’ remarks also exclude the option that he was referring to
men who were thinking about music, as then he would not have stressed that
they were primarily moved by harmony within the apparent world. It is also
unlikely that the notion mousikos refers to performing artists, as
these were not much respected in late antiquity. Then, music was mainly
performed by slaves, and only very few famous musicians are known – Nero
being one of the exceptions
. Therefore, we can
conclude that it is very likely that Plotinus was referring to composers of
music when employing the term mousikos. Of course, it is possible
that these have also participated in the performances of their works
sometimes.
So far we have found out that, besides lovers and philosophers, musicians
can get access to the higher realms of existence
. If this worldly sounds, harmonies, and consonances
naturally move someone, then this person is a musician. People who have
already progressed further are expected to help these potential musicians to
grasp that what they like within this world can be found in a cleaner
instance in the higher realms of existence, the nous
and the hen. Once musicians have taken this way, they can actually
dedicate themselves to their very task, and compose. Then, one can find out
whether the musician in question is good or bad. In case, he creates
beautiful musical works, he is a good musician, if not, he is a bad
musician. Bad musicians, and bad artist in general are bad, as they create
ugly works
. After having analysed
some aspects of a Plotinian musician, I can now explain what the musician
creates – music.
§ 2 Music
 After
the musician has contacted nous and hen, he can compose music,
and if he is a good musician, he creates beautiful works, and if not, then
he composes ugly musical works. It is important to have had access to the
nous and the hen, as in this way he comes in contact with beauty
itself, perfect harmony, ideal consonance, and fulfilling rhythms, figures,
and sounds. Still, even when he has experienced, and understood what a
musician needs to be familiar with, it depends on his technical capacities
as a composer whether he becomes a good musician or not. A good musician can
use what he has experienced and produce corresponding musical works. A bad
musician, on the other hand, has also come in contact with the higher realms
but does not have the technical abilities to create corresponding musical
works. Still, it is justified to call both of them musicians, as musicians
are all those men who naturally get moved by everything musical which is a
psychological disposition. Whether the person in question is a good musician
or a bad one depends on what he himself produces which is connected to his
technical capacities.
The question remains what the relationship between music
in the higher realms and music in the apparent world is. Plotinus gives a
clear characterisation of this worldly music:
“We may know this also by the concordance of the souls with the ordered
scheme of the Cosmos; they are not dependent, but, by their descent, they
have put themselves in contact, and they stand henceforth in harmonious
association with the cosmic circuit – to the extent that their fortunes,
their life-experiences, their choosing and refusing, are announced by the
patterns of the stars – and out of this concordance rises as it were one
musical utterance: the music, the harmony, by which all is described, is the
best witness to this truth.
Such a consonance can have been produced in one
only way:
The All must, in every detail of act and
experience, be an expression of the Supreme, which must dominate alike its
periods and its stable ordering and the life-careers varying with the
movement of the souls, as they are sometimes absorbed in the highest,
sometimes in the heavens, sometimes turned to the things and places of our
earth.” [17]
Here Plotinus explains the analogy between this world,
the souls, and music. In the fifth century Boethius employs the following
three expressions to refer to the analogies in question: musica mundana,
musica humana, musica instrumentalis
. Firstly,
musica mundana refers to the harmony in our macrocosm, which comes about
by means of the harmony of the spheres. Secondly, musica humana means
the harmony in the microcosm, the body/soul relationship. According to
Pythagorean-Platonic thinking, the soul is constituted out of consonant
numbers and can be influenced ethically by means of music, which is also
based on numbers. Lastly, musica instrumentalis refers to the harmony
of the apparent notes, melodies, and music. There is an analogy between all
three types of music.
Numbers are important in Plotinus’ philosophy of music, and in particular
the ratios of the musical intervals. The Pythagoreans only regard intervals,
which are based on ideal mathematical ratios as harmonious, and whatever is
harmonious also promotes the appropriate ethical virtues. Yet, according to
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) who also belongs to the Pythagorean-Platonic
tradition the sense of hearing is more important for deciding whether an
interval is harmonious or not
. As a consequence, he
holds that, besides the intervals based on ideal mathematical ratios, some
others like thirds (5:4) and sixths (6:5) also have to be regarded as
harmonious. Plotinus, on the other hand, takes a somewhat more radical
position, as he claims that ideal mathematical ratios, and together with
this pure music cannot be found within this world
:
Plotinus’ position does indeed have some plausibility, if
we apply it to specific problems, like the Pythagorean comma. According to
mathematics, seven eights and twelve fifths are supposed to be identical,
however, in practice one gets slight difference – the Pythagorean comma. So
that musicians can play equally well in every key, a practical solution to
this problem was put forward by Andreas Werckmeister (1645-1706) in his work
„Musicalische Temperatur“, and it had a significant effect on the history of
music. In theory, Plotinus with his previous remark gives a good
explanation, how the Pythagorean comma has come about. Seven eights and
twelve fifths are not identical because we are referring to the material
world. In the intelligible world, on the other hand, the Pythagorean comma
does not exist. Of course, Plotinus did not put it that way himself, but
this could and most probably would have been his reply, if one had asked him
how his theory applies to the Pythagorean comma.
Dealing with the ratios of intervals according to Plotinus, now we have
found one explanation concerning the relationship between this-worldly, and
otherworldly music in the numbers. In the other world, one finds ideal
mathematical ratios, and in an imperfect manner these ratios turn up within
our universe, and our music. By reference to these ideal mathematical
ratios, one can explain rhythms, and harmonious intervals, as in both
imitations of perfect ratios can be found. This understanding of numbers
also provides us with one explanation, how something eternal and unchanging
can turn up in a temporal manner. Stretching ideal mathematical ratios over
time is one way of getting beautiful figures, and harmonies.
 Another
way of fulfilling the same task is by means of our souls, and its virtues.
Music affects the irrational part of our souls
, and there one also finds the political virtues
. When Plotinus talks about political virtues he refers to
the four Platonic virtues: wisdom, courage, moderateness, and justice
. According to Plato, one needs these virtues to live a good
life or to be eudaimonious. According to Plotinus, however, they are
just the basis for higher virtues, which are related to the procedure of
cleaning, and the theoria
, which is the
contemplation that is linked to the feeling of ecstasy when one enters the
one, the hen, whereby all boundaries get dissolved. Plotinus
experienced such an ecstasy himself only four times in his life
:
“There, indeed,
it was scarcely vision, unless of a mode
unknown; it was a going forth from the
self, a simplifying, a renunciation, a
reach towards contact and at the same
time a repose, a meditation towards
adjustment. This is the only seeing of
what lies within the holies: to look
otherwise is to fail.”
As the political virtues are linked to the irrational
soul, and the same applies to music, there is a link between music and the
political virtues as well
. The more beautiful music
is, the more appropriate political virtues are contained in the music in
question
. The political virtues
are part of the irrational soul, and they originate from higher levels of
existence. The ethical connection of music is the second option of how music
is related to the higher realms
. As music is related to
the higher levels of existence by means of the political virtues, and
numbers, it is no problem for Plotinus that the forms in the nous are
eternal and unchanging whereas music is flowing and in time – virtues, and
numbers can be expressed in a dynamic manner.
All visual arts, in various degrees, are related to the Platonic forms.
Music, however, is flowing, and more abstract than the other arts, as it
does have neither representational, nor verbal content. It is difficult to
see a connection of music to normal forms, which are usually described in
visual terms, as it is done in the whole Platonic tradition. However, when
one listens to music, then one rather gets embedded in the unity of music,
the boundaries of ones individuated existence get dissolved, and one can
reach ecstatic states which cannot be compared to experiences of other types
of art. The experience of ecstasy in which there is no longer an “I” and a
“you” but just a feeling of unity, is also praised as the highest virtue in
Plotinus. Theoria is a form of ecstasy, as he himself says, a “going
forth from the self”
. One can experience this
type of ecstasy when one enters the one, the hen which is described
as unified but boundless. I do not claim that the ecstasy one can experience when one
listens to music, and the ecstasy connected to the entrance into the one are
identical, but given Plotinus’ appreciation of music, it seems implausible
to hold that these are two completely separate types of ecstasy, as Abert
does
. There must be a
connection between these two forms of ecstasy
.
Given that background we can understand, how Plotinus can consistently hold
that music is superior to the other arts which becomes clear when he points
out that in particular musicians by nature have the capacity to reach the
“Primal-Principle”
but also that beauty can
rather be perceived by our eyes than our ears:
“Beauty
addresses itself chiefly to sight; but
there is a beauty for the hearing too,
as in certain combinations of words and
in all kinds of music, for melodies and
cadences are beautiful; and minds that
lift themselves above the realm of sense
to a higher order are aware of beauty in
the conduct of life, in actions, in
character, in the pursuits of the
intellect; and there is the beauty of
the virtues. What loftier beauty there
may be, yet, our argument will bring to
light.”
It is easier to experience beauty by means of our eyes
than our ears, but it is easier to get access to the “Primal-Principle”, or
the one by means of music than by the visual arts, as the ecstatic states
connected to music are related to the ecstasy of the theoria. The one
is the source of beauty, and is therefore on a higher level than beauty.
Beauty, which we can more easily grasp by means of the visual arts, exists
on the level of the nous, but the feeling of unity, of which we can
get a grasp by means of music, is related to the one. As the realm of the
one is higher than that of the nous, and it can rather be reached by
means of music than by means of the other arts, music is superior to the
other arts.
“So, mounting,
the Soul will come first to the
Intellectual-Principle and survey all
the beautiful Ideas in the Supreme and
will avow that this is Beauty, that the
Ideas are Beauty. For by their efficacy
comes all Beauty else, by the offspring
and essence of the Intellectual-Being.
What is beyond the
Intellectual-Principle we affirm to be
the nature of Good radiating Beauty
before it. So that, treating the
Intellectual-Cosmos as one, the first is
the Beautiful: if we make distinction
there: the Realm of Ideas constitutes
the Beauty of the Intellectual Sphere;
and The Good, which lies beyond, is the
fountain at once and Principle of
Beauty: the Primal Good and the Primal
Beauty have the one dwelling-place and,
thus, always, Beauty’s seat is There.”
Although we have already analysed some aspects of the
relationship between music and higher realms of existence, we can ask
whether beauty could be described even more specifically. Whenever we wish
to explain earthly beauty, we usually refer to symmetry, and Plotinus
himself also pointed out the importance of that notion when he explained
that ratios of numbers are important for what is beautiful. Whatever
corresponds to the golden ratio is symmetrical, and whatever is symmetrical
is beautiful
. However, Plotinus doubts
that this is all there is to beauty, as in that case no single, unified
thing could be beautiful but it is clear to him that this can be the case -
in the nous we find beauty itself. In addition, he tries to show that
symmetry alone is somehow lacking beauty, as symmetrical things in some
respects (or sometimes) can be regarded as beautiful and in others (at other
times) they cannot
. I do not regard this as
a convincing argument, as it is obvious that it is impossible that
symmetrical things can ever be perceived as ugly. However, Plotinus puts
forward another stronger argument whereby he argues that other beautiful
things, like laws, knowledge or science are not and cannot be symmetrical
either, therefore we cannot link beauty with symmetry only
. In this respect, I think, Plotinus is right. If he regards
laws, science, and knowledge as beautiful, then the concept of symmetry
alone is not sufficient, and not even necessary to explain what beauty is.
In addition, symmetry implies a relationship and relationships imply more
than one thing, therefore symmetry cannot exist in the one, as the one does
not consist of more than one thing. However, the one is the source of
beauty, and is what Plotinus calls the “Primal Beauty”
. Therefore, it is not sufficient, and not even necessary to
refer to symmetry to explain what beauty is
. Ratios of numbers, and thereby also symmetry represent one
aspect of beauty, but it is not the only possible aspect of beauty. The
virtues are another aspect. They are beautiful
, and they represent one reason why laws can be beautiful, as
these should take the virtues into consideration. So if we wish to grasp
what beauty is, we have to consider various aspects of existence. Numbers,
and virtues are two important aspects of beauty, and I have already
explained the relationship of these two aspects to music.
After having specified the concept of beauty further, especially with
respect to music, we can now focus on the relationship of artistic objects
to ugly human beings, beautiful human beings, and natural
non-human objects within this world. Thereby, we get an even better grasp of
another aspect of beauty.
Plotinus wonders whether natural non-living objects or
artistic objects are more beautiful. Thereby, he compares a raw piece of
marble and one in the form of a god, which was created by an artist. As the
marble god clearly is more beautiful than the natural piece of marble,
Plotinus infers that what makes a thing beautiful is its form, and not its
matter, and the reason for this is that the form was in the intellect of the
artist before it entered the material world. And it always has to be the
case that the creative principle is superior to the created thing
.
Given such a world view, we can understand that Plotinus
regards artistic objects as superior to other non-living objects. As he also
says that the creative principle is superior to the created thing, we can
also infer that he regards artists as superior to artistic objects. However,
he generalizes this further by explaining that whatever partakes more in
life is more beautiful
. The highest form of
life being the one, the source of everything. However, men as they have a
rational soul
partake more in life than
other living objects, like animals and plants. These, however, are still
superior to artistic objects and other non-living objects
. He even applies the principle that living objects are more
beautiful than non-living to artistic objects as well, even though none of
them lives. However, artistic objects, which are more full of life, are
superior to such which partake less in life by means of representation, even if those were more symmetrical
. So the aspect of life is more relevant for beauty than the
aspect of symmetry. Ugly human beings, of course, are inferior to beautiful
ones, as the beautiful partake more in life than the ugly. Beauty here
refers to inner beauty, the beauty of the soul and not that of the body, as
internal beauty is more important than external beauty. The most ugly thing
being raw formless matter as it does not at all partake in life. It is
completely evil. Given this short summary of Plotinus’ hierarchy of worldly
beauty, we can order the earthly things as follow, starting from the lowest
with respect to beauty: non living objects, artistic object, plants,
animals, ugly human beings, beautiful human beings. Because of this
analysis, we have become aware of another aspect of beauty, namely the
aspect of life, which is more important with respect to beauty than the
aspect of symmetry, according to Plotinus. The previous thoughts give us a
clear understanding of where Plotinus places music among the earthly things.
Music is the highest of the arts, and music which is full of life is the
highest type of music. However, he ranks the arts in general below all
living things. Living things are those, which have some kind of soul. After
having dealt with the creator of music, the musician, we have concerned
ourselves with the object created, music, and now the last theme to
investigate is the reception of music.
Part two
Music
§ 3 Reception of Music
 Although
Plotinus has given a detailed account of what a musician is, and what he
understands as music, his analysis of the reception of a work of art is less
wide ranging. We have already seen that music appeals to the irrational part
of the soul, which is also the part in which the political virtues are.
However, it is still unclear, what happens, when people listen to music.
“Never did eye
see the sun unless it had first become
sunlike, and never can the Soul have
vision of the First Beauty unless itself
be beautiful.
Therefore, first let each become godlike and each
beautiful who cares to see God and Beauty.”
Relationships only come into existence on the basis of
likeness. If the irrational part of the soul contains the political virtues,
then it feels at home in harmonious, beautiful music, as they correspond to
these virtues. If the irrational part of the soul is disorganised, then it
feels drawn to dissonant music as well. However, if a disorganised soul were
to listen to harmonious music, then the music could help the soul to become
more and more ordered. Music in Ancient philosophy was always regarded as a
strong ethical force
. After aestheticism has
started to dominate the philosophy of art, this view has lost a lot of his
influence. However, if one considers the effects of heavy metal music on
young people, and one compares it to the effects of a mass by Palestrina,
then it is hard to believe in the truth of aestheticism. Music clearly has
an ethical influence, and all the other arts have one as well. Tolstoy, in
his wonderful essay “What is art?” is one of the few modern thinkers who
takes the ethical effects of art as seriously as they have to be taken.
Perhaps Plotinus point becomes clearer, if we replace the
term “soul” with the term “character”. The soul is what moves us, and the
irrational soul contains the political virtues, on which we base our
actions. If the political virtues are present, our actions are orderly and
appropriate; if not, they are chaotic and irregular. We can make the same
distinction with respect to the character. If someone has a strong
character, his acts are clear, regular, and ordered. If someone has a weak
character it is the opposite
. If we substitute the
term “soul” with that of “character”, we can rephrase Plotinus’ observations
as follows: People feel drawn to music to which their character can relate,
and in which they feel at home. If one experiences music to which one cannot
relate, then this has an effect on the respective character as well. I
regard these observations as extremely plausible, and therefore worth
considering further. However, with these thoughts we have reached the end of
the description of Plotinus’ philosophy of music. We can now compare aspects
of it with minimal music.
§ 4 Minimal Music
Among the various types of contemporary classical music,
minimal music is by far the most successful, not academically perhaps but
definitely concerning the educated public. Recordings of minimal music
compositions sell well, composers of minimal music are often asked to write
music for fairly popular films, like “The Piano” (Nyman) or “The Hours”
(Glass; originally Nyman, but his score was turned down), and minimal music
in contrast to many other types of contemporary classical music actually
gets performed. One reason for the popularity of minimal music is that it
combines elements from both pop as well as high culture
. It makes music accessible again. Avant-garde music, on the
other hand, has usually created single works whereby each work is a work in
its own right with specific set of qualities which distinguishes it from all
other works. A work of Avant-garde music normally does not fit into a genre,
but represents a genre itself – a genre which consist of one work only. It
demands a great amount of effort to be able to relate to such a work.
Composers of minimal music do not accept the necessity of creating a genre,
and a scale for each new work, but their works normally fit into a specific
genre, and are based on a fairly tonal scale – harmony, and symmetry do have
a central role in minimal music composition, and they also have a comparable
position within Plotinus’ concept of beauty. Minimal music is often
described as meditative, repetitive, and organic
. The meditative aspect is also important for Plotinus, and
as he values works of art which are full of life highly, minimal music also
meets this demand, as it unfolds, and develops dynamically, and gradually,
like a living organism.
Harmony, and symmetry
are not only relevant within a
composition but also concerning
 the
connection between a composition, and
the world view on the basis of which it
was created. Many composers of minimal
music tend to think holistically, in the
same way as Plotinus’ philosophy was
holistic
.
This leads us to the next aspect where a
significant similarity between minimal
music aesthetics, and Plotinus’
philosophy of music can be found. - the
ethical aspect. The central role the
virtues have in Plotinus’ philosophy of
music has already been described.
However, to hold that there is a close
connection between art, and ethics has
not been given much consideration since
Kant, because in that period Kant’s
disinterested aesthetic attitude has
been in the focus of concern for most
art theoreticians. We get pleasure from
the contemplation of art, if the formal
aspects of the work of art are
appropriate. Art, and music has been
taken to be pleasurable, and playful,
but mostly without any ethical
significance. Yet, many composers of
minimal music have a different attitude
concerning this relationship which is
also the reason why the ethical aspect
has a fairly central position in many of
their compositions. In particular, we
could consider Philip Glass, John
Tavener, Arvo Paert, and Peter Michael
Hamel. I only make some remarks about
Philip Glass.
Glass has been heavily influenced by Buddhist thinking
, especially after spending several month in India, and Ravi
Shankar helped him to get a better grasp of Indian music.
However, Glass has also set texts from the Hindu tradition
to music, and dedicated a work to the Christian Tolstoy
. Such an open attitude toward the various world religions
corresponds to Plotinus’ negative theology. Only by means of negative
statements, we get a grasp of God. Glass seems to accept that various
religions provide appropriate approaches to the one God, also he personally
favours the Buddhist religion. Connected to the great importance of
religion, is the ethical aspect. All the world religions are in favour of a
specific ethics
. Within religiously
inspired music, the importance of specific values also gets conveyed.
Therefore, both Glass and Plotinus consider the connection between
harmonious, symmetrical, orderly, and organic music, and values, and
virtues. If one wishes to understand the Buddhist Glass who is open to other
religious traditions, then it is advisable to become familiar with Plotinus’
philosophy of hen, and of music, as their outlook on life, art, and
music is similar, and Plotinus provides us with a complex system by means of
which one can get a systematic grasp of minimal music.
However, religion has not only become
important for Glass, Hamel, for example,
has also spend a long time in India, and
was inspired both by Indian music as
well as spirituality. Besides having
used these influences in his
compositions, he has also gathered them
in one of the most influential books on
minimal music “Durch Musik zum Selbst:
Wie man Musik neu erleben und erfahren
kann” in which he not only embeds
minimal and Asian religious music in a
holistic context, but also shows the
healing power of such types of music.However, not all composers of
minimal music were mainly inspired by
Buddhist religiosity, John Tavener
,
and Arvo Paert
belong to the Russian-Orthodox church.
Both mainly compose religious music
.
On a theoretical level the books “Nada
Brahma: Die Welt ist Klang” by
Joachim-Ernst Berendt and “The Magic of
Tone and the Art of Music” by Dane
Rudhyar need to be mentioned. Dane
Rudhyar particularly points out the
close connection between music, harmony,
and holism.
Berendt even acknowledges the
relevance of Plotinus’ philosophy for
minimal music
.
His account in general owes significant
debt to the Pythagorean-Platonic
tradition of music theory, to which
Plotinus also belongs. As in Plotinus’
philosophy musicians/composers are of
great importance, it is particularly his
philosophy of music which due to its
complexity, and depth could help us
getting a better grasp of the minimal
music movement.
|
Bibliography
1.
Abert, Hermann “Die Musikanschauung des
Mittelalters und ihre Grundlagen” (Tutzing:
Hans Schneider, 1964)
2.
Abert, Hermann “Die Lehre vom Ethos in
der griechischen Musik: Ein Beitrag zur Musik³sthetik des
klassischen Altertums” (Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1968)
3.
Beardsley, Monroe C. “Aesthetics from
Classical Greece to the Present: A Short History” (New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1966)
4.
Berendt, Joachim-Ernst “Nada Brahma: Die
Welt ist Klang” (Frankfurt am Main: Insel Verlag, 1983)
5.
(Ed.) Blume, Friedrich “Die Musik in
Geschichte und Gegenwart” (Kassel: B³renreiter-Verlag, 1986)
6.
Boyden, Matthew “Opera: The Rough Guide”
(London: The Rough Guides, 1997)
7.
(Ed.) Cooper, David “A Companion to
Aesthetics” (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1995)
8.
Drews, A. “Plotin und der Untergang der
antiken Weltanschauung” (Aalen: Scientia Verlag, 1964)
9.
Georgiades, T. “Musik und Rhythmus bei
den Griechen: Zum Ursprung der abendl³ndischen Musik” (Hamburg:
Rowohlt Verlag, 1958)
10.
Gerson, L. P. “Plotinus” (London:
Routledge, 1994)
11.
(Ed.) Gerson, L. P. “The Cambridge
Companion to Plotinus” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996)
12.
Goette, Ulli “Minimal Music: Geschichte
– Aesthetik – Umfeld” (Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel, 2000)
13.
Hamel, Peter “Durch Musik zum Selbst:
Wie man Musik neu erleben und erfahren kann” (Bern, München,
Wien: Scherz Verlag, 1976)
14.
(Ed.) Hamel, F./Hürlimann, M. “Das
Atlantisbuch der Musik Band 1: Geschichte der Musik” (Zürich:
Atlantis Verlag, 1964)
15.
Haydon, Geoffrey “John Taverner:
Glimpses of Paradise” (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995)
16.
Heinemann, F. “Plotin: Forschungen über
die plotinische Frage, Plotins Entwicklung und sein System” (Aalen:
Scientia Verlag, 1973)
17.
Horn, Christoph “Plotin über Sein, Zahl
und Einheit: Eine Studie zu den systematischen Grundlagen der
Enneaden” (Stuttgart und Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1995)
18.
Huntley, H. E. “The Divine Proportion: A
Study in Mathematical Beauty” (New York: Dover Publications,
1970)
19.
James, J. “The Music of the Spheres:
Music, Science and the Natural Order of the Universe” (London:
Abacus, 1993)
20.
Jankélévitch, Vladimir “Plotin
‘Ennéades’ I, 3: Sur la dialectique” (Paris: Les Éditions du
Cerf, 1998)
21.
(Ed.) Kostelanetz, Richard “Writings on
Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism”(Berkeley/L.A./London:
University of California Press, 1997)
22.
Lovisa, Fabian R. “minimal-music: Entwicklung, Komponisten,
Werke” (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1996)
23.
MacIntyre, Alasdair ‚Which Gods ought We
to obey and Why’. In: Faith and
Philosophy, Vol. 3, N. 4, Ocktober 1986
24.
Miles, Margaret R. “Plotinus on Body and
Beauty: Society, Philosophy, and Religion in Third-centrury Rome”
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
25.
Möbuß, S. “Plotin zur Einführung” (Hamburg:
Junius Verlag, 2000)
26.
(Ed.) Nida-Rümelin, Julian/Betzner,
Monika “Ästhetik und Kunstphilosophie von der Antike bis zur
Gegenwart” (Stuttgart: Kröner Verlag, 1998)
27.
Perpeet, Wilhelm “Antike Ästhetik” (München:
Alber, 1988)
28.
Plotin “Plotins Schriften”, 5 volumes,
translated into German by Richard Hader (Leipzig: Meiner Verlag,
1930)
29.
Plotino “Enneadi”, translated into
Italian by Giuseppe Faggin (Milano: R. C. S. Libri S. p. A.,
2000)
30.
Plotinus “The Enneads”, translated into
English by Stephen MacKenna (London: Penguin Books, 1991)
31.
Richter, A. “Darstellung des Lebens und
der Philosophie des Plotin: Neuplatonische Studien” (Aalen:
Scientia Verlag, 1968)
32.
Rudhyar, Dane “Die Magie der Töne: Musik
als Spiegel des Bewußtseins” translated from the American by
Jürgen Saupe (Bern/München/Wien: Scherz Verlag, 1984)
33.
Schöndorf, Hildegard “Plotins Umformung
von Platons Lehre vom Schönen” (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt Verlag,
1974)
34.
Sen, Joseph “Souls”, in Ancient
Philosophy 20 (2000)
35.
Sloterdijk, Peter “Kopernikanische
Mobilmachung und ptolem³ische Abrüstung: Ästhetischer Versuch“
(Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1987)
36.
Taverner, John “The Music of Silence: A
Composers Testament” (London: Faber and Faber, 1999)
37.
Walter, Julius “Die Geschichte der
Ästhetik im Altertum” (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1967)
38.
Zoltai, Denes “Ethos und Affekt:
Geschichte der philosophischen Musik³sthetik von den Anf³ngen
bis zu Hegel” (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1970)
|
